Informes de la Construcción

78 (581), January-March 2026, 7236

ISSN-L: 0020-0883, eISSN: 1988-3234

https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.7236

ARTICLE

Electricity consumption thresholds for apartments and the required PV roof-surface under constraint conditions in Lima

Umbrales de consumo eléctrico para departamentos y la superficie de techo fotovoltaico requerida bajo condiciones restrictivas en Lima

Richard H. Valdivia-Sisniegas

Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Lima. Perú

Corresponding author: C19165@utp.edu.pe, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0783-6831

María del Pilar Buleje-Orihuela

Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Lima. Perú

C24030@utp.edu.pe, https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5461-8809

Karen Nicole Quispe-Lerma

Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Lima. Perú

U22219365@utp.edu.pe, https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2921-0735

ABSTRACT

This study aims to estimate the photovoltaic rooftop area required for apartments in the city of Lima, Peru; applying the annual yield formula from the International Energy Agency (IEA). A key challenge identified is the lack of standardized electricity consumption data by housing typologies. Using data from the Residential Energy Consumption and Usage Survey (ERCUE, 2009-2021) and the thresholds of the Social Electric Compensation Fund (FOSE, 2001/2022), standard consumption levels for 1-, 2-, and 3-bedroom apartments were determined. The results indicate that apartments with 1 or 2 bedrooms and lower consumption thresholds are suitable for single-panel PV solutions due to reduced space requirements, whereas 3-bedroom apartments with higher energy demand pose design challenges for rooftop installations. Under constraint conditions, PV rooftop areas may consider a tolerance range of -15.83% to 11.46% compared to specific panel sizes. These findings support the early-stage architectural design of energy-efficient multifamily buildings.

Keywords: PV panel; multifamily building; on-grid; energy transition; constraint sizing.

RESUMEN

Se busca estimar el área fotovoltaica requerida para departamentos en Lima, Perú; aplicando la fórmula de rendimiento anual de la Agencia Internacional de Energía (AIE). Un desafío clave identificado es la falta de datos estandarizados de consumo eléctrico por tipología de vivienda. Utilizando la Encuesta de Consumo y Uso de Energía Residencial (ERCUE, 2009-2021) y los umbrales del Fondo de Compensación Eléctrica Social (FOSE, 2001/2022), se determinaron niveles de consumo estándar para departamentos de 1, 2 y 3 dormitorios. Los departamentos con 1 o 2 dormitorios y umbrales de consumo bajos son adecuados para soluciones fotovoltaicas de un solo panel debido al espacio reducido, mientras que los de 3 dormitorios con mayor consumo plantean desafíos de diseño. Bajo condiciones restrictivas, las áreas fotovoltaicas pueden considerar tolerancias de -15.83% a 11.46% comparadas con dimensiones específicas de paneles. Estos hallazgos respaldan el diseño arquitectónico de edificios multifamiliares energéticamente eficientes en etapa temprana.

Palabras clave: panel fotovoltaico; multifamiliar; en red; transición energética; dimensionamiento limitado.

Received: 15-03-2025 / Accepted: 13-02-2026 / Published: 24-06-2026

Citation: Richard H. Valdivia-Sisniegas, María del Pilar Buleje-Orihuela, Karen Nicole Quispe-Lerma (2026). Electricity consumption thresholds for apartments and the required PV roof-surface under constraint conditions in Lima. Informes de la Construcción, 78 (581): 7236. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.7236

Copyright: © 2026 CSIC. This is Diamond Open Access content distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.

Supplementary information ↓

Content

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. State of the art

1.1.1. Simplified calculation types for setting up PV panels

1.1.2. Residential average consumption in Lima

1.1.3. Targets of savings in residential consumption

1.1.4. Overal assumptions

2. METHODOLOGY

3. RESULTS

3.1. Data definition of the IEA simplified formula

3.2. Data definition for the simplified formula used in common spaces

3.3. Data definition for the simplified formula used in apartments

4. DISCUSSION

5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION ↑

Worldwide, PV panels mounted on residential roofs have been widely used to meet energy needs. Therefore, there is a need for developing tools suitable to be used even by non-specialists, which is becoming an increasingly important task [1][1] N. Aste, C. Del Pero, F. Leoforte and M. Manfren, “A simplified model for the estimation of energy production of PV systems,” Energy, vol. 59, pp. 503-512, 15 September 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.07.004. There is also a need to reduce the use of “conventional” energy carriers related to the most typical end-uses and to upscale emission-free technologies like PV systems. In some studies, the Ecological Footprint (EF) indicator determines that single-family dwellings have a 45 % higher footprint than the multifamily buildings [2][2] P. González-Vallejo, J. Solís-Guzmán, R. Llácer and M. Marrero, “La construcción de edificios residenciales en España en el período 2007-2010 y su impacto según el indicador Huella Ecológica,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 67, no. 539, p. e111, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.14.017. Hence the importance of investing in more sustainable versions of multifamily housing, as they provide greater efficiency and can further reduce their environmental impact, including electricity consumption. If in most parts of the countries the electricity problem is related to cost [3][3] M. d. Luxán García de Diego, G. Gómez Muñoz and E. Román López, “Cuentas energéticas no habituales en edificación residencial,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 67, no. EXTRA-1, p. m028, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.14.059 and high levels of emissions [4][4] N. S. Pardo, G. León Penagos and H. Acevedo, “Impactos ambientales asociados a la huella de carbono y la energía incorporada del ciclo de vida de una edificación en Medellín,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 74, no. 565, p. e436, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.82758, in the case of the urban zones in Lima the cost is strongly dependent on variations in the price of gas, and the emissions depends partially of the hydroelectric and thermal production [5][5] J. E. Murga Delgadillo, G. M. Porras Monterrey, J. C. Torres Aguilar and R. De La Cruz Casaño, “Photovoltaic technology employment in Peru. A literature review,” Engineering Solid Mechanics, Huancayo, 2022. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.esm.2022.5.001. But it is definitely linked to the water capacity of the Andes, which is increasingly in danger due to climate change, so it is also a question of resilience. In recent years, bad experiences in nearby countries such as Ecuador [6][6] J. A. Molina Ramón and K. T. Moncada Landeta, “Crisis Energética, Necropolítica y Simulacro: La Coyuntura Ecuatoriana bajo la Gestión de Daniel Noboa,” Revista Veritas De Difusão Científica, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 1651–1673, 2024. https://doi.org/10.61616/rvdc.v5i3.304, [7][7] S. M. Chasiluisa-Yanchatuña, Y. C. León-Troya, H. M. Caicedo-Romero and W. M. López-Villavicencio, “Alternativas de generación eléctrica en Ecuador: retos y desafíos,” Polo de Conocimiento, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1128-1142, 2024. https://polodelconocimiento.com/ojs/index.php/es/article/view/8165/pdf and [8][8] A. M. Alvarado-Álvarez, C. L. Salvador-Fernández, S. J. Berruz-Alvarado and G. G. Cañar-Lascano, “La atención primaria en salud durante la problemática del servicio electrico en Guayaquil Ecuador,” Journal Scientific MQRInvestigar, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 7553-7569, 2024. https://doi.org/10.56048/MQR20225.8.4.2024.7553-7569 and Colombia [9][9] Bloomberg, “La sequía obliga a Colombia a quemar más combustible de lo que se tenía planeado,” La República, 30 October 2024. https://www.larepublica.co/economia/sequia-obliga-a-colombia-a-quemar-mas-combustible-de-lo-planeado-3988697, [10][10] D. Rios, A. Perez, J. Carabali and L. Meneses, “Poder de mercado y eventos climáticos adversos en un mercado de electricidad hidro-dominado,” Borradores de Economía, no. 1266, 2024. https://repositorio.banrep.gov.co/server/api/core/bitstreams/0950c00d-b025-4e9e-b460-313e779e21b4/content and [11][11] M. García Patiño and J. Zarate Acosta, “Impacto de la variabilidad climática en los precios de oferta de los generadores hidráulicos en Colombia,” UNIVERSIDAD EIA, Envigado, 2024. https://repository.eia.edu.co/server/api/core/bitstreams/75de8548-dc58-4194-84ce-c47f6b293e14/content that have suffered serious restrictions and blackouts due to droughts should lead us to prepare resilient cities in terms of electricity. This also includes the recent energy crisis in Peru during March 2026 [12][12] Red de Comunicación Regional, «www.rcrperu.com,» 09 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.rcrperu.com/crisis-energetica-en-peru-26-millones-de-hogares-y-360-mil-vehiculos-dependen-del-gas-natural-advierte-osinergmin/ [Último acceso: 10 03 2026]., [13][13] Diario El Comercio, «elcomercio.pe,» 07 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://elcomercio.pe/respuestas/que/se-viene-el-alza-de-luz-en-peru-osinergmin-contesta-tras-crisis-de-gas-natural-tdpe-noticia/
[Último acceso: 10 03 2026] and [14][14] A. Ricci, «lpderecho.pe,» Pasion por el Derecho, 09 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://lpderecho.pe/crisis-gas-denuncian-empresas-electricidad-han-pedido-mef-al-minem-perdidas-carguen-recibos-luz/ [Último acceso: 09 03 2026]..

On the other hand, consumption behavior is evolving due to the use of permanent or partial plug-in appliances, the use of electric ovens and home-office habits that can be considered as factors that increase the consumption during daylight. Despite the variability of the current results and their dynamic behavior, household load consumption analysis is still relevant for effective utility planning, and PV power forecasting is equally important for the successful operation of a multi-apartment building scale PV system [15][15] U. G. Mulleriyawage, P. Wang, T. Rui, K. Zhang, C. Hu and W. X. Shen, “Prosumer-centric demand side management for minimizing electricity bills in a DC residential PV-battery system: An Australian household case study,” Renewable Energy, vol. 205, p. 800–812, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.01.029. However, solar radiation has the advantage of regular annual variation and could be an interesting opportunity to use it, and a way to incorporate the correct climatic consideration on the energy certificated buildings [16][16] E. Martín del Toro, “La influencia de la correcta consideración climática en los certificados energéticos realizados en Canarias,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 71, no. 556, p. e310, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.66351. Therefore, a minimum or average amount usable of such energy is a promising aspect for the energy transition, even in a constraint scenario.

By the beginning of 2025, in Peru, it is not yet possible to insert electricity into the grid nor obtain compensation [17][17] E. R. Soto, L. Arellán, D. Checa, A. Rios, E. Espinoza, H. Grados-Espinoza and A. Leva, “Regulatory Proposal to Promote Micro Photovoltaic Distributed Generation in Peru,” in 20th International Multi-Conference for Engineering, Education Caribbean Conference for Engineering and Technology, LACCEI 2022, Boca Raton, 2022. https://doi.org/10.18687/LACCEI2022.1.1.97 using on-grid PV systems in residential buildings. Due to the absence of the regulation of the Generation Law (2006) [18][18] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law Nº 28832. Ley para asegurar el desarrollo eficiente de la Generación Eléctrica,” Diario El Peruano, pp. 324744- 324754, 23 julio 2006. Available: https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/Leyes/28832.pdf and its benefits, more individual and specific calculations are required for residential PV systems. Estimates of individual electricity consumption for architects are not usual, but could be necessary for multifamily building design at the initial phases of conception when the number and apartment distribution and common spaces begin to be defined. This information could be used to consider solar energy at the beginning of the architectural concept. Even in this constraint scenario, sustainable building codes and certifications consider PV systems to be used to reduce electricity consumption. However, environmental certifications in Peru encourage a 30% energy reduction in multifamily buildings. This is similar to the initial goal of Peruvian GHG mitigation commitments at 2030 established in the Paris Agreement (2015). In December 2020 it was increased to reduce CHG emissions to 40% (depending on international funding) and, increase the Peru’s “climate ambition” with the aim of becoming a carbon-neutral country by 2050 [19][19] H. Campodónico and C. Carrera, “Energy transition and renewable energies: Challenges for Peru,” Energy Policy, vol. 171, p. 113261, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113261.

On the other hand, it is assumed that PV systems can also benefit apartments, however, the number and types of these may differ in each project, so theoretical studies are required, as this can influence the types of electricity consumption. According to the Association of Real Estate Companies of Peru (ASEI), 23.9% of the homes sold in Metropolitan Lima in 2024 had only one bedroom. In this respect, eight years ago, such properties accounted for only 10% of sales; and 38.1% of properties sold had three bedrooms [20][20] F. Sanchez, “El 23.9% de viviendas vendidas solo tienen un dormitorio,” 04 February 2025. [Online]. Available: https://peru21.pe/economia/el-239-de-viviendas-vendidas-solo-tienen-un-dormitorio/. The possible PV distribution on roofs can be studied to cover at least partial demands of the common spaces and taking into account the number of apartments and the estimated consumption for each of them.

Due to data availability restrictions in household surveys, the information about standardized electricity consumption data by housing typologies is not available [21][21] S. Camino-Mogro and K. Arias, “Assessing the impact of electricity subsides onelectricity consumption: The case of selected LatinAmerican countries,” Latin American Economic Review, vol. 33, pp. 1-46, 2024. https://doi.org/10.60758/laer.v33i.375. This article shows a proposal for estimating on-grid PV systems on multifamily rooftops in Lima, considering the electricity consumption according to Residential Energy Consumption and Usage Survey (ERCUE) values. Additionally, the consumption for every type of 1-, 2-, and 3-bedroom apartment is assumed to determine the necessary roof areas in multifamily buildings employing the annual PV yield formula, as a simple calculation that can be helpful, especially in the conception phase. It considers introducing PV systems only for partial contributions in common spaces and apartments, using smart meters to block the possible insert of overproduction to the grid.

1.1. State of the art ↑

1.1.1. Simplified calculation types for setting up PV panels ↑

Off-grid or stand-alone: There are various methods for sizing stand-alone PV systems, ranging from very complicated to simpler methods [22][22] J. Aguilera, L. Hontoria and F. J. Muñoz, “Dimensionado de sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos,” Grupo Idea, 2011. https://manuelberaun.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/dimensionado-de-sfv-autonomos.pdf. In this case, an accurate assessment of the energy consumption is critical and involves the household load demands to determine the necessary PV array and battery sizes [23][23] A. Z. Henry and A. F. M. Nor, “Sizing Standalone PV Systems: A Review of Optimization Techniques and Methodologies,” International Journal of Computer Engineering in Research Trends. IJCERT, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 54-59, 12 December 2023. https://doi.org/10.22362/ijcert/2023/v10/i12/v10i127 and [24][24] F. Bouti, K. Touafek, H. Haloui and A. Khelifa, “New graphical interface for Sizing PV systems,” Journal of Renewable Energies, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 19-29, September 2023. https://doi.org/10.54966/jreen.v1i1.1095. Using the load analysis method, once the demand or consumption has been established, a safety factor (SF) for the reliability of the system due to battery charging and possible overconsumption must be ensured, which can be set at 25% or 30% (SF=1.2 or 1.3). Then, the result is divided by the solar peak hour (SPH) of the site, and the panel power to be used. With the SPH it is possible to choose the level of autonomy, being able to choose the minimum SHP of the site to ensure the system (critical month criterion) or to choose the average (annual average criterion), or may even select the value of the months with maximum radiation in case of being a temporary installation for that moment; but, for the rest of the months, it will be under-dimensioned. The result will provide the number of panels as follows in formula 1:

(1)

Nº panels according Off-grid load analysis method

Nº of panels =

Daily consumption (kWh) x SF

SPH x Panel power (Wp)

Source: [25][25] E. Pujada Gamarra, “Curso de dimensionamiento de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos,” 09-30 May 2024. [Online].

On-grid or grid-connected: It is a system connected to a net by interconnected inverters and solar panels, producing energy employing solar panels and transporting it to the electric net [26][26] N. M. Kumar, M. Subathra and J. E. Moses, “On-Grid Solar Photovoltaic System: Components, Design Considerations, and Case Study,” in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Electrical Energy Systems, ICEES 2018, Chennai, India, 2018.. These systems involve various approaches to optimize performance while considering constraints such as space, cost, distance, and environmental impact. This size considers only the generation during the daytime. Batteries can be installed to store the surplus, but, making it a hybrid system, the installation cost. The SPH of the location, the nominal power of the panel, and an efficiency factor are determined, to establish the number of panels needed. First of all, the daily consumption profile of the house is required, configuring the PV generation adjusted to the level or below the demand during the daylight time or Daily Consumption Factor (DCF), approximately 50% of the consumption in households to take advantage of the available hours of sunshine, reducing the excess of a generation that can’t be inserted into the grid. Formula 2 shows the on-grid initial calculations.

(2)

Nº panels according On-grid limits approach

Nº of panels =

Daily consumption (Wh) x DCF

SPH x Panel power (Wp) x Efficiency

Source: [25][25] E. Pujada Gamarra, “Curso de dimensionamiento de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos,” 09-30 May 2024. [Online].

PV energy yield estimations considering the area: For architects is more reasonable to consider PV installation as a geometrical surface. A practical and simple formula for PV estimations was proposed by the International Agency of Energy (IEA) in a manual conceived for architects, intended to be a helpful tool, and can be used at the very early design phase (See formula 3). To estimate the final yield of a PV installation, different parameters and constraints must be taken into account [27[27] IEA SHC Task 41: Solar energy & Architecture, “Solar Energy Systems in Architecture. integration criteria and guidelines,” in Report T.41.A.2, International Energy Agency ‐ Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2013, pp. 1-213. https://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/T41DA2-Solar-Energy-Systems-in-Architecture-28March2013.pdf, p. 90]. The correct control and design of these parameters is important to have an installation working properly, such as nominal power of the system, orientation of the modules, conditions at the location, mounting situation and type of integration (ventilation and temperature coefficient), the ground reflection, and finally the Performance Ratio (PR) considering the losses of the overall system. Nowadays, considering the advance of technology in module efficiency and the increment of size formats, is also important to study specific PV market availability.

(3)

PV Energy Final Yeld (FY)

F.Y. = G[kWh.m2.y] · Orientation Factor [%] · Area[m2] · eff[%] · PR[%]

Source: [27][27] IEA SHC Task 41: Solar energy & Architecture, “Solar Energy Systems in Architecture. integration criteria and guidelines,” in Report T.41.A.2, International Energy Agency ‐ Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2013, pp. 1-213. https://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/T41DA2-Solar-Energy-Systems-in-Architecture-28March2013.pdf

1.1.2. Residential average consumption in Lima ↑

The interplay between building characteristics (apartments/houses), occupant behaviour, electrical appliances, and seasonal consumption is complex, contributing to energy demand. There are not many studies in Lima about different electricity consumption by typology households, but in general, less consumption is attributed to apartments than houses, due to area size, occupancy rate and quantity of appliances. The reduced size area in apartments presumes a low electricity consumption (lighting and electrical appliances) and lower daily consumption behaviour.

A student survey during 2011-2014 [28][28] R. H. Valdivia-Sisniegas, “Consumos de Electricidad y Agua en viviendas de estudiantes en Lima 2011-2014,” Sin publicar, Lima, 2015. on 183 departments indicates that the maximum consumption in departments can reach up to 485kWh/month, the average 229.98kWh/month and the lowest consumption 52.67kWh/month. Much of this electricity consumption was related to the apartment area. The First National Report of Urban Indicators [29][29] Periferia y World Wild Fundation, “Ciudades del Perú. Primer Reporte Nacional de Indicadores Urbanos 2018. Con un enfoque de sostenibilidad y resiliencia.,” Periferia y World Wild Fundation, Lima, 2018. https://www.wwf.org.pe/?341474/Primer-Reporte-Nacional-de-Indicadores-Urbanos-2018 established the national average for high residential electricity consumption in Lima was 228.11 kWh/month in 2018, the average residential consumption would be 110 kWh/month, and the national average for low residential consumption was 44.37 kW/month. Officially, the recurrent Residential Energy Consumption and Usage Survey (ERCUE) has the main objective to measure the energy consumption patterns of the residential segment at the national level, with regional representativeness, by urban and rural areas [30][30] www.gob.pe, “Portal del Estado Peruano,” 22 February 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.gob.pe/institucion/osinergmin/colecciones/1591-encuesta- residencial-de-consumo-y-usos-de-energia.. According to this survey, in 2018, the Peruvian average electricity consumption in households was 60 kWh/month, and in urban areas, it could reach up to 85 kWh/month. The city of Lima had the highest level of electricity consumption in the country, reaching an average consumption of up to 135 kWh/month per household [31][31] Osinergmin, “Informe de Resultados Consumo y Usos de la Electricidad Encuesta Residencial de Consumo y Usos de Energía – ERCUE 2018,” Gerencia de Políticas y Análisis Económico - GPAE, 2018. https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/1414562/ERCUE%20Electricidad%202018.pdf. By 2021, the national average was 93.4kW/month, the urban areas 113 kWh/month, and Lima reached up to 172.4 kWh/month [32].[32] Osinergmin, “Informe de Resultados - . Consumo y Usos de la Electricidad. Encuesta Residencial de Consumo y Usos de Energía - ERCUE 2019-2020,” GPAE, 2021. https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/2691020/ERCUE%20Electricidad%202019-2020.pdf In these surveys, the electricity consumption is linked to socio-economic factors, from 300 kWh/month to 30 kWh/month.

According to studies in other Peruvian cities, the assessment of self-consumption mechanisms under the conditions of the residential market of Peru shows that the users of higher consumption than 100 kWh/month, with grid parity, self-consumption of PV energy would result more convenient. While household users with consumption less than 100 kWh/month, would not reach the grid parity [33][33] A. Ríos Villacorta, J. Guamán, D. Humpire Mojonero and J. Luyo Kuong, “Technical and economic analysis of residential photovoltaic distributed generation: Net billing and self-consumption in Peru,” International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 438 - 447, March 2020. https://doi.org/10.20508/ijrer.v10i1.10468.g7899. The ERCUE values show evolutions at different scopes (National, Urban and Lima consumptions) and put interesting levels that can be useful to define targets for electricity consumption savings (See Table 1).

Table 1. Overall results in ERCUE surveys (2009-2021) about Peruvian electricity consumption in households in kWh/month.

On the other hand, the Social Electric Compensation Fund (FOSE) is a scheme of subsidies for electricity users based on their consumption [34][34] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 27510 - Ley que crea el Fondo de Compensación Social Eléctrica,” El Peruano, p. 209263, 28 August 2001. Available: https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/Leyes/27510.pdf. This cross-subsidy was created with the mindset that lower consumption corresponds to low-income households and highincome households’ consumption is higher. Energy customers consuming less than the stablished limit of energy per month receive a discount that is financed by those consumers using more than this amount of energy per month [35][35] D. W. García, “Trading solar panels for grid power: An ethnography of rural energy service in Peru,” Journal of Rural Studies, vol. 78, p. 254–261, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.06.017.

Table 2 shows the discount thresholds for all users connected to the electricity grid. Until 2022 the threshold to be granted by FOSE was 100 kW/month. A recent modification to this subsidy scheme in 2022 establishes a payment reduction for urban areas equivalent to 9 kWh/month in the electricity rate for homes that consume between 140 kWh/month and 30kWh/month and also a 30% payment reduction in the electricity rate for homes that consume less than 30 kW/month. Users who consume more than 140 kWh/month are surcharged to balance the subsidy [36][36] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 31429 - Ley que modifica la ley 27510,” El Peruano, pp. 4-5, 26 February 2022. Available: https://img.lpderecho.pe/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Ley-31429-LPDerecho.pdf.

Table 2. FOSE cross-subsidy scheme before and after 2022.

Type of users

Sector

Law nº 27510
Tariff reduction for consumptions before 2022

Law nº 31429
Tariff reduction for consumptions from 2022

less than or equal to 30 kWh/m

between 30kWh/m and 100kWh/m

less than or equal to 30 kWh/m

between 30 kWh/m up to 140 kWh/m

Interconnecte systems

Urban

25% of the energy charge

7.5 kWh/m discount

30% of the energy charge

9 kWh/m discount of the energy charge

Urban- rural

50% of the energy charge

15 kWh/m discount

60% of the energy charge

18 kWh/m discount of the energy charge

Sources: [34][34] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 27510 - Ley que crea el Fondo de Compensación Social Eléctrica,” El Peruano, p. 209263, 28 August 2001. Available: https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/Leyes/27510.pdf, [36][36] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 31429 - Ley que modifica la ley 27510,” El Peruano, pp. 4-5, 26 February 2022. Available: https://img.lpderecho.pe/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Ley-31429-LPDerecho.pdf

Dwellings situated in the blocks classified as high and medium-high strata, according to the map stratified by blocks of the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI) and dwellings that are only occupied in summer will be excluded from this subsidy [21][21] S. Camino-Mogro and K. Arias, “Assessing the impact of electricity subsides onelectricity consumption: The case of selected LatinAmerican countries,” Latin American Economic Review, vol. 33, pp. 1-46, 2024. https://doi.org/10.60758/laer.v33i.375.

1.1.3. Targets of savings in residential consumption ↑

In Peru, environmental certifications establish a minimum 30% reduction in consumption in common areas for new and existing designs using the certifier’s software. For the electrical case, the savings goals are proposed in percentages and the unit of measurement (kWh/year). Several studies propose using solar energy to comply with this standard in a traditional multifamily building. A study that includes a multifamily building with 18 floors and 60 apartments, considered energy-saving light bulbs for internal spaces, common areas and external spaces, lighting controls, as well as photovoltaic solar energy that aims to save 30% of the total energy use estimated in a system of 11kWp [37][37] O. M. Asalde Vargas and W. D. P. Chávez Ignacio, “Comparación de presupuestos entre edificaciones tradicionales y edificaciones sostenibles con certificación EDGE,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2020.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/3897. However, it does not indicate the number of solar panels, although it adds a 1.626m2 PV panel from the technical sheet (from 250 to 270Wp) and only the overall simulated savings achieved (from 363,449.60 kW to 211,269.60 kW and in the proposal, i.e.: -41.87%). In another research in a building with 20 apartments PV panels were proposed for improvements: energizing the pumps to supply the water tank on the rooftop and lighting in common areas. A calculation of the new energy consumption decrease was 23.95% [38][38] L. S. Lovera Cabrera and O. O. Quispe Catari, “Propuesta de plan de mejora en la gestión de agua y energía para la mitigación de Impactos Ambientales en edificios multifamiliares existentes de cinco pisos basado en recomendaciones EDGE. Caso: Block 03 – Condominio Héroes de San Juan y Miraflores,” Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10757/656884.

Other research proposes the design of a multifamily building with 16 apartments on nine floors and a rooftop [39][39] A. M. Apari Lopez and J. R. Capcha Alvites, “Diseño de una edificación multifamiliar con parámetros EDGE para mitigar el impacto ambiental,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2023. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/7180, considering two cases of intervention. For the consumption of common areas, it indicates an estimated 93.99kWh/month for the baseline for both cases. It establishes an overall energy consumption reduction of 38.26% for case 1 and case 2 a reduction of 28.64%. Finally, a research proposes a 5-story multifamily building, with 10 apartments and a rooftop terrace [40][40] A. P. Cordova Vasquez and N. K. Huarcaya Torres, “Diseño de un edificio multifamiliar con parámetros de certificación EDGE, para alcanzar su sostenibilidad, en el distrito de San Borja,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2022. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/6001, proposing the electrical issue saving of energy with efficient light bulbs indoors, light controllers in corridors, occupancy sensors and the use of solar energy. A baseline defines a minimum monthly electricity consumption of up to 74.40kW/month, a maximum of 329.40kW/month, and an average of 231.83kW/month. However, the calculations for certification usually show higher consumption for both apartments and duplexes.

1.1.4. Overal assumptions ↑

In summary, considering the restrictive landscape (both regulatory and design-related in the Peruvian context), the following assumptions can be added:

2. METHODOLOGY ↑

The study aims to apply the simplified formula to calculate photovoltaic energy produced based on the available surfaces on the rooftop, and its capacity to provide an annual electricity production to the average consumption of the common spaces and apartments. For the 1rst stage, the estimation formula recommended by the IEA considers the area of the panels on the roof. The technical data necessary for the formula have also been compiled: solar radiation, types of photovoltaic panels available on the Peruvian market, and percentages of losses to consider due to the various parts of the system. ERCUE values were used to establish electricity consumption thresholds considering the differences between the sizes of the apartments (1, 2, and 3 bedrooms). Current FOSE thresholds are considered only to set a range allowing for a few economic benefits.

In the 2nd stage, a representative building has been chosen for the following reasons: 1) Recent multifamily projects in Lima (44.1%) have between 6 and 10 floors, while 32.2% exceed 10 floors [41] [41] Tinsa Perú, “Residential Market Overview – Perú | Lima Metropolitana y Callao | Primer trimestre 2025,” [Online]. Available: https://www.tinsa.com.pe/residential-market-overview-q1-2025/. And it is estimated that 49.4% of the projects do not exceed 10 floors [42][42] Diario Gestión, “Uno de cada 2 proyectos inmobiliarios no superan los 10 pisos de altura: ¿en donde se construye?,” 26 12 2024. [Online]. Available: https://gestion.pe/economia/empresas/1-de-cada-2-proyectos-inmobiliarios-no-superan-los-10-pisos-de-altura-en-donde-se-construye-construccion-empresas-tinsa-lima-top-lima-moderna-miraflores-surco-noticia/, which can be interpreted 10 as the number of floors close to the average. 2) It is located in the Miraflores district, which has established special ordinances for the use of photovoltaic systems, but only for common uses of the MiVivienda Sostenible program, without grid injection. 3) It is a recently designed building (2023) that features a large number of one and two-bedroom apartments, a trend that is beginning to predominate in Lima due to the cost of housing [20][20] F. Sanchez, “El 23.9% de viviendas vendidas solo tienen un dormitorio,” 04 February 2025. [Online]. Available: https://peru21.pe/economia/el-239-de-viviendas-vendidas-solo-tienen-un-dormitorio/. Preliminary calculations were made for two different conditions. The common spaces condition, and the second one in a theoretical case, if every apartment generates a part of its energy consumption with an on-grid PV system. Thus, an annual estimation of energy yield was achieved for a constraint PV contribution without obstructions of shadows from the surroundings. Finally, PV areas required for different consumptions for every type of dwelling were obtained, as well as the number of panels, based on technical sheets available in the local market.

3. RESULTS ↑

3.1. Data definition of the IEA simplified formula ↑

According to the technical report from de IEA, an estimation of PV energy yield can be led in the first stage considering:

Table 3. Incidence factor according azimuth and tilt angles in Lima (lat.: -12.4º).

Tilt angle

Azimuth angle

Orientation

Percentage

+12º

±0º

N

99.21%

+12º

+45º

NE

98.90%

+12º

-45º

NW

98.85%

+12º

+90

E

98.10%

+12º

-90

W

96.92%

+12º

+135

SE

97.31%

+12º

-135

SW

97.24%

+12º

±180

S

98.04%

Average:

98.07%

Source: [52][52] R. H. Valdivia-Sisniegas, “Aplanando la curva del consumo eléctrico con fotovoltaicos y hábitos ahorradores en un departamento en Lima (2017-2020),” Arquiteck, vol. 20, pp. 42 - 55., 2021. https://doi.org/10.47796/ra.2021i20.551

Table 4. Structure of losses to obtain the Performance Ratio (PR).

*

Heat above 25ºC

:

-7.44%

*

Misalignment of modules and strings

:

-3.20%

*

Inverter loss (MPP)

:

-1.40%

*

Ohmic loss of wiring

:

-1.25%

**

Loss due to dirt on the panels

:

-4.00%

***

Safety factor

:

-1.74%

Total

:

-18.59%

PR

:

81.41%

Sources:

* [59][59] M. L. Sánchez Montehermoso, “Estimación de la energía fotovoltaica potencial a partir de la radiación solar del distrito lagunas - Chiclayo,” Repositorio de la Universidad Privada del Norte UPN, 2023. https://hdl.handle.net/11537/35077
** [62][62] J. E. Carrasco Delgado and M. G. Ramirez Vilchez, “Diseño de un prototipo limpiador automatizado para paneles solares de dimensiones 160 x 90 x 4 cm,” Repositorio Universidad Señor de Sipán, 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12802/7786
*** [65][65] J. H. Méndez Marquina, “Diseño de un sistema fotovoltaico estándar para alimentación con energía eléctrica a viviendas en el Distrito de Sanagoran – Sánchez Carrión -2017,” Respositorio de la Unviersidad César Vallejo, 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12692/23056

Figure 1. Minimum, average and maximum electricity consumption in households (ERCUE surveys 2009-2021) and FOSE subsidy thresholds in urban areas.

3.2. Data definition for the simplified formula used in common spaces ↑

At the local level, a municipal ordinance of the Miraflores neighbourhood in Lima [69][69] Municipalidad de Miraflores, “Ordinance N° 581/MM,” El Peruano, p. Separata especial, 17 December 2021. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/munimiraflores-lima/normas-legales/2681720-581-2021-mm established the main objective to regulate the technical criteria for the design and construction of sustainable buildings, and to establish incentives to compensate and reward the construction of buildings that meet minimum sustainability conditions. Compliance with this Ordinance is free and voluntary. This regulates the minimum requirements for CEPRES certification (sustainable buildings with an indeterminate timeframe; characterized by the use of environmental resources to reduce energy consumption), establishing that projects must consider solar-powered lighting in at least 50% of the common areas, except for the parking levels. According to most recent ordinance established [70][70] Municipalidad de Miraflores, “Ordinance Nº 618/MM,” El Peruano, pp. 72-85, 20 September 2023.Available: https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2218698-1: “Lighting with solar energy: In the corridors connecting the residential units located in the semi-basement and the floors above ground level must necessarily be artificial lighting and mechanical ventilation (...), both through the use of solar energy”. As Table 5 shows, it is assumed the daily consumption of electrical lighting.

Table 5. Example of energy estimation to cover electricity consumption in common areas by on-grid PV panels to comply Ord. 581/MM and Ord. 588/MM (modification).

Parameter

Energy ranges

100% Energy consumption

Daily consumption: lighting in common spaces on the ground levels

35.34 kWh

Annual consumption

12,900.00 kWh/year

50% Energy by design

50% of annual consumption

6,450.00 kWh/year

Projected daily energy consumption

17.67kW.h

Source: [25][25] E. Pujada Gamarra, “Curso de dimensionamiento de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos,” 09-30 May 2024. [Online].

At the national level, the updated Project Certification Procedure of the MiVivienda Sostenible Programme [71][71] Fondo MiVivienda, “Procedimiento de Verificación de Proyectos del Programa MiVivienda Sostenible,” Departamento de Desarrollo Organizativo, 2025. Available: https://www.mivivienda.com.pe/PORTALCMS/archivos/documentos/8585831813173775167.PDF allows for the installation of photovoltaic systems for electricity generation in indoor common areas (measured in kWh/year). In this case, either in solar roofs or isolated systems, it is indicated that dimensioning shall be calculated according to the energy demand in the common areas of circulation and rest (lighting and outlets, without considering elevators). It also proposes gradual values of the minimum requirement for the indoor and outdoor photovoltaic power generation system, having as a minimum requirement modules more than 3.00 kWp for projects that certify to grade I+, of more than 6.00 kWp for projects that certify to grade II+ and of more than 10. 00 kWp for projects certifying to Grade III+. The systems must work on direct injection to the grid (without batteries). It also establishes that the number of luminaires per type shall not exceed 2.90 to 5.93 kW/m² depending on the climate zone, by technical standard EM- 110, by table No. 03 of the Building Sustainable Technical Code (CTCS).

Sunshine’s report concludes with the feasibility, monitoring and technical assistance of the PV system. With the values found for average Lima conditions, a preliminary calculation has been made to cover the lighting demand of the common spaces in a hypothetical building of 10 levels: 9 for apartments and a rooftop with common spaces (gym and coworking, passageways, barbecue areas, terrace, bathrooms and staircase). In Figure 2, the first and tenth levels have more appliances than intermediate levels; thus, the calculation has been specified in three rows. When considered as a whole, the final calculation of area and number of panels can be added up. The use of 550Wp panels has been considered one of the most common panels in the current Peruvian market. In this hypothetical case, 6 panels of 550Wp each are required to cover the restrictive local regulations for on-grid systems and certification without energy insertion into the grid. (See Table 6).

Schematic view of conventional common spaces in a multifamily building

Common areas

Figure 2. Common spaces in a 9-level multifamily building.

For indoor common spaces a simple decision was chosen because the system could be resolved with a one-panel type. It can be mentioned that nowadays, there are many buildings with common spaces closed, without access to daylight and natural ventilation, so the final yield can be reduced if more passive conditions are considered.

3.3. Data definition for the simplified formula used in apartments ↑

The electricity demand differs greatly according to the type of dwelling; usually, a higher consumption is attributed to single-family houses, whereas a lower consumption is attributed to apartments. Considering the ERCUE values, in this case, it is an exercise to independently determine panel area, types, and quantities for every type of apartment. In the case of a multifamily building, it will depend on the number of apartments and the capacity of each one to be configured (1, 2, and 3 bedrooms), assuming this aspect is influential in the type of consumption. Figure 3 presents a current hypothetical distribution of apartments based on the number of bedrooms in a typical multifamily building located on a corner. This section presents a preliminary approximation to cover half of the electricity demand of 1, 2, and 3-bedroom flats considering average values from ERCUE studies between 2009 and 2021, using a PV on-grid system to avoid or reduce electricity insertion on the grid. As previously mentioned, because of the restricted conditions of the electrical sector in Peru, a reduction factor has been applied to approximate consumption within the hours of daylight during which it can be supplied to the internal network of the apartment. According to the general consumption profile, half of the consumption can occur during the day, which is very similar to the criteria for defining the load of common areas. Following the definition of demands, the formula is resolved in the same way, as shown in Table 7, however, panel efficiency is a relevant aspect, since this value changes when changing the panel for every type of apartment. PV panel dimensions were searched from technical data sheets of solar panels sold on the Lima market, with their values at the power level (WP), panel efficiency (%), and geometric dimension (m). The selected panel dimensions were chosen to accomplish the defined loads. The marked columns emphasized the most variable data on the geometrical size and influence on the definition of the PV surface. The different panel types and panel quantities were used to plan the spacing in the area and the roof shape of the multifamily building.

Schematic view of typical apartment distribution in a multifamily building situated on a corner.

1-bedroom apartment

2-bedroom apartment

3-bedroom apartment

Figure 3. Types of apartments in a 9-level multifamily building.

Table 7. Estimation of the PV panel area corresponding to the apartments according number of bedrooms.

4. DISCUSSION ↑

The subject of small-medium sized PV systems connected to the grid is a missing gap within the country, as there is still no specific legal framework and no financing solutions are available. In the case of Lima, where insolation levels have a high component of diffuse radiation, the selection criterion has been because almost one-third of Peruvians live there, so a small distributed PV system could relieve the grid by testing self-consumption and individual solutions, although its integration into the city’s urban distribution may be a challenge [72][72] R. Espinoza, E. Muñoz-Cerón, J. Aguilera and J. de la Casa, “Feasibility evaluation of residential photovoltaic self-consumption projects in Peru,” Renewable Energy, vol. 136, pp. 414-427, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.01.003.

To set consumption loads by apartment, minimum and average ERCUE values can be considered reliable due to their recurrence, trajectory and proximity to FOSE benefits. In this case, it is preferable to set reduction factors according to the consumption of PV on-grid systems to reduce overproduction. Determining the consumption thresholds, the limits can be within the ranges established in the FOSE (less than 140kWh/month or even 30kWh/month), considering the minimum economic benefits and the need to reduce consumption.

In common areas, the calculation is not difficult as long as the equipment consumption is known. The same calculation in the case of apartments is more complex because it estimates different consumptions for different typologies, whereas common areas can be worked as a single set.

In a scenario with fewer available roof areas, using the minimum value attributed to the national average consumption can reduce the size of solar installations. In the case of more roof areas for solar installations, the minimum, average, and maximum electricity consumption values in urban areas can be selected regarding the proximity to the FOSE limits. The minimum, average, and maximum values for dwellings in Lima would not help, as the consumption would require a larger roof area to cover the demand with the necessary PV installations (mainly solar panel areas).

The number of PV panels depends on the power required to meet the load established by every type of apartment. In this way, the relationship between the load and the available space is optimized; however, this implies a complexity of power and areas to be considered in the design and distribution of the arrays and the resulting geometries.

For 1-bedroom apartments, these can easily be operated with a single panel in every case, but different power output panels are chosen, defining a single type of consumption, either low (240Wp), average (340Wp) or high (550Wp), which is a favourable aspect in case the distribution and design of the PV arrays.

For 2-bedroom apartments, it would only tolerate 1 panel per dwelling in the case of low (550Wp) and average (550Wp) consumption; increasing to 2 panels in the case of high consumption (405Wp). The dimensions start to demand more space on the rooftop.

For 3-bedroom apartments, it would only tolerate 1 panel per dwelling for low consumption (595Wp), increasing to 2 panels for average (390Wp) and high (595Wp) consumption. This option requires a larger rooftop area.

At the level of calculations, in PV panels, the panel efficiency is linked to the area dimensions to more accurately approximate the established consumption load. Regarding comparisons between the calculated area and the proposed area with real panels, some differences must be considered. The largest differences reach -15.83% as a deficit and up to 11.46% as an excess area in the case of minimum consumption. Differences less than 10% could be considered for average and high consumption.

If it is decided to put PV solar panels in every apartment, different arrays could be obtained, and the design of the rooftop layout will become an interesting challenge that involves different formats of solar panels, apartment organizations, the definition of ventilation cores and ducts, and a balance of available surfaces.

In this sense, the values chosen from the ERCUEs surveys border 100 kWh/month consumption and go with grid parity [33][33] A. Ríos Villacorta, J. Guamán, D. Humpire Mojonero and J. Luyo Kuong, “Technical and economic analysis of residential photovoltaic distributed generation: Net billing and self-consumption in Peru,” International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 438 - 447, March 2020. https://doi.org/10.20508/ijrer.v10i1.10468.g7899. Regarding PV surfaces, this condition could be considered very suitable for the selected ERCUEs values, as apartments with average and high consumption would have better chances than those with extremely high and very low consumption. In a context where smaller, 1 and 2-bedroom apartments are starting to predominate, potentially with convenient consumption, this would lead to the prioritization of types of dwellings. In the case of the 3 bedroom typology, only a smaller number of apartments with this typology would make PV rooftop solar systems more feasible, as they require more space. These conditions will lead to finding options depending on the distribution of the flats and the resulting typologies in multifamily buildings.

Peru ranks third in South America for the most expensive energy [73][73] El Oriente, “www.eloriente.com,” 09 10 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.eloriente.com/articulo/que-paises-de-america-latina-tienen-el-precio-de-la-luz-mas-cara/47240, and is influenced by international fluctuations of natural gas. The cost per kWh in the residential sector is S/0.79 (US$0.27). Furthermore, there is no evidence of government or local programs in Peru integrating photovoltaics in urban apartments. Therefore, the study can contribute to the new development of renewable energy sources in the residential sector. As shown in Table 8, the payback on investment with this approach could be 6.1 years in the best-case scenario, so on-grid installations in several apartments during the construction phase can significantly reduce costs.

Table 8. Payback times estimation by apartment types and levels of consumption.

With a cost of S/0.79 kW/m, the FOSE subsidy can provide savings of up to S/85.32 per year. Relative impact is greater in smaller investments (low consumption). In all three apartment types, the FOSE benefit is applied to those with lower consumption; however, for average consumption, the FOSE benefit only applies to 1- and 2-bedroom apartments. In any case, with high consumption the FOSE could be applied. The average reduction in payback time with the subsidy is between 0.13 and 0.30 years (≈1.5 to 3.6 months) less. There is a greater relative benefit for consumption of 60 kWh/month (return could improves ~5.3% in optimal scenario).

According to Table 9, considering the available roof area, the habitable terraces that can be covered or semi-covered with panels, as well as the direct surfaces of the roofs, the availability for photovoltaic panels on the roof is achieved with lower consumption and less pressure from the design to at least ¼ of the available roof area (from 22.29 to 21.56%). As consumption grows, the pressure for a larger area increases to a third of the roof area (from 27.59% to 29.49%), while considering higher consumption requires at least 40% of the roof area (from 37.77% to 37.15%). Even percentual differences are not significant, a 9.5m2 difference can be expected between calculated and defined areas.

Table 9. Percentage of use for rooftop solar installations.

5. CONCLUSIONS ↑

Resilience to future drought and possible reduction in hydroelectric supply in Peru should lead to more effective regulations in this regard, leveraging renewable energy. Environmental certifications in the country encourage a 30% energy reduction in multifamily buildings, as this is the commitment established in the initial Paris Agreement; however, a more ambitious reduction standard could be experimented with to achieve a more effective energy transition.

In the case of current multifamily buildings, PV energy can contribute partially and only in common areas, without considering its possible use in homes due to the lack of regulations and incentives. For current environmental considerations, it makes clear that lower energy consumption should not necessarily correspond to low-income households; however, only less consumption should contribute to curbing climate change, and most apartments could achieve this goal. In this case, the FOSE thresholds may also apply to these circumstances until the regulation is defined. Even now that 1- and 2-bedroom apartments are increasing in the real estate market; this condition can be exploited. In the case of housing consumption, it makes little sense to allow high consumption in apartments, then reduce consumption by 30% and certify this type of housing as sustainable. Therefore, it is necessary to establish limits, like the low thresholds found in the ERCUEs (national and urban area consumption), that can be used to set standard consumption targets for dwellings in Lima to promote energy savings.

Despite the constraint conditions, the partial contributions of on-grid systems could facilitate a massive energy transition. There is also an available market of PV technology for homes to integrate into new and existing buildings without injecting energy into the grid. Using simple formulas to determine the PV area needed is a valuable tool that helps architects include these systems in multifamily projects from the design phase, and they must become familiar with the technical specifications of solar panels and consider percentage differences of at least -15.83% and 11.46% tolerance for a single dwelling.

In the case of Lima, designers of multifamily buildings could consider allocating between 25% and 40% of the rooftop area to optimal solar spaces, free from shadows and with an orientation appropriate to the location. A 9.5m2 difference can be expected between calculated and defined areas. This suggests that the rooftop should be considered in relation to the interior layout to maximize the potential for optimal surfaces, potentially creating two or three designated areas for this purpose.

Even under restrictive conditions, if consumption ranges are targeted for each type of apartment, standard data on operating conditions for the city, and the use of technical sheets of panels available on the market, the design of PV roof arrays can be estimated and defined in the conceptual phase of the projects. Of course, more studies on the daily profile consumption of Peruvian dwellings (apartments or single-family homes) are necessary to define typical loads for calculations. Research on the roof layouts of multifamily buildings with PV panels under constraint conditions can also continue this exploration. The possible contribution of solar microgeneration in urban areas and multifamily buildings following the recent energy crisis in Peru in March 2026 can also be analyzed.

Supplementary information ↑

Funding sources

Work carried out in the framework of Project P-2024_LIM-28: ‘Relaciones dimensionales y energéticas de paneles fotovoltaicos: un enfoque geométrico en el contexto peruano - 2024’, funded by Universidad Tecnológica del Perú.

Supplementary material

Not applicable.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the support and assistance provided by Universidad Tecnológica del Perú.

Authorship contribution statement

Richard H. Valdivia-Sisniegas: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

María del Pilar Buleje-Orihuela: Formal analysis, Resources, Review & editing, Visualization.

Karen Nicole Quispe-Lerma: Resources, Software, Review & editing, Visualization

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial, professional or personal conflicts of interest that could have inappropriately influenced this work.

Statement on the use of Artificial Intelligence

Not applicable.

REFERENCES ↑

[1] N. Aste, C. Del Pero, F. Leoforte and M. Manfren, “A simplified model for the estimation of energy production of PV systems,” Energy, vol. 59, pp. 503-512, 15 September 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.07.004

[2] P. González-Vallejo, J. Solís-Guzmán, R. Llácer and M. Marrero, “La construcción de edificios residenciales en España en el período 2007-2010 y su impacto según el indicador Huella Ecológica,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 67, no. 539, p. e111, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.14.017

[3] M. d. Luxán García de Diego, G. Gómez Muñoz and E. Román López, “Cuentas energéticas no habituales en edificación residencial,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 67, no. EXTRA-1, p. m028, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.14.059

[4] N. S. Pardo, G. León Penagos and H. Acevedo, “Impactos ambientales asociados a la huella de carbono y la energía incorporada del ciclo de vida de una edificación en Medellín,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 74, no. 565, p. e436, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.82758

[5] J. E. Murga Delgadillo, G. M. Porras Monterrey, J. C. Torres Aguilar and R. De La Cruz Casaño, “Photovoltaic technology employment in Peru. A literature review,” Engineering Solid Mechanics, Huancayo, 2022. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.esm.2022.5.001

[6] J. A. Molina Ramón and K. T. Moncada Landeta, “Crisis Energética, Necropolítica y Simulacro: La Coyuntura Ecuatoriana bajo la Gestión de Daniel Noboa,” Revista Veritas De Difusão Científica, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 1651–1673, 2024. https://doi.org/10.61616/rvdc.v5i3.304

[7] S. M. Chasiluisa-Yanchatuña, Y. C. León-Troya, H. M. Caicedo-Romero and W. M. López-Villavicencio, “Alternativas de generación eléctrica en Ecuador: retos y desafíos,” Polo de Conocimiento, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1128-1142, 2024. https://polodelconocimiento.com/ojs/index.php/es/article/view/8165/pdf

[8] A. M. Alvarado-Álvarez, C. L. Salvador-Fernández, S. J. Berruz-Alvarado and G. G. Cañar-Lascano, “La atención primaria en salud durante la problemática del servicio electrico en Guayaquil Ecuador,” Journal Scientific MQRInvestigar, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 7553-7569, 2024. https://doi.org/10.56048/MQR20225.8.4.2024.7553-7569

[9] Bloomberg, “La sequía obliga a Colombia a quemar más combustible de lo que se tenía planeado,” La República, 30 October 2024. https://www.larepublica.co/economia/sequia-obliga-a-colombia-a-quemar-mas-combustible-de-lo-planeado-3988697

[10] D. Rios, A. Perez, J. Carabali and L. Meneses, “Poder de mercado y eventos climáticos adversos en un mercado de electricidad hidro-dominado,” Borradores de Economía, no. 1266, 2024. https://repositorio.banrep.gov.co/server/api/core/bitstreams/0950c00d-b025-4e9e-b460-313e779e21b4/content

[11] M. García Patiño and J. Zarate Acosta, “Impacto de la variabilidad climática en los precios de oferta de los generadores hidráulicos en Colombia,” UNIVERSIDAD EIA, Envigado, 2024. https://repository.eia.edu.co/server/api/core/bitstreams/75de8548-dc58-4194-84ce-c47f6b293e14/content

[12] Red de Comunicación Regional, «www.rcrperu.com,» 09 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.rcrperu.com/crisis-energetica-en-peru-26-millones-de-hogares-y-360-mil-vehiculos-dependen-del-gas-natural-advierte-osinergmin/ [Último acceso: 10 03 2026].

[13] Diario El Comercio, «elcomercio.pe,» 07 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://elcomercio.pe/respuestas/que/se-viene-el-alza-de-luz-en-peru-osinergmin-contesta-tras-crisis-de-gas-natural-tdpe-noticia/
[Último acceso: 10 03 2026]

[14] A. Ricci, «lpderecho.pe,» Pasion por el Derecho, 09 03 2026. [Online]. Available: https://lpderecho.pe/crisis-gas-denuncian-empresas-electricidad-han-pedido-mef-al-minem-perdidas-carguen-recibos-luz/ [Último acceso: 09 03 2026].

[15] U. G. Mulleriyawage, P. Wang, T. Rui, K. Zhang, C. Hu and W. X. Shen, “Prosumer-centric demand side management for minimizing electricity bills in a DC residential PV-battery system: An Australian household case study,” Renewable Energy, vol. 205, p. 800–812, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.01.029

[16] E. Martín del Toro, “La influencia de la correcta consideración climática en los certificados energéticos realizados en Canarias,” Informes de la Construcción, vol. 71, no. 556, p. e310, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.66351

[17] E. R. Soto, L. Arellán, D. Checa, A. Rios, E. Espinoza, H. Grados-Espinoza and A. Leva, “Regulatory Proposal to Promote Micro Photovoltaic Distributed Generation in Peru,” in 20th International Multi-Conference for Engineering, Education Caribbean Conference for Engineering and Technology, LACCEI 2022, Boca Raton, 2022. https://doi.org/10.18687/LACCEI2022.1.1.97

[18] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law Nº 28832. Ley para asegurar el desarrollo eficiente de la Generación Eléctrica,” Diario El Peruano, pp. 324744- 324754, 23 julio 2006. Available: https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/Leyes/28832.pdf

[19] H. Campodónico and C. Carrera, “Energy transition and renewable energies: Challenges for Peru,” Energy Policy, vol. 171, p. 113261, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113261

[20] F. Sanchez, “El 23.9% de viviendas vendidas solo tienen un dormitorio,” 04 February 2025. [Online]. Available: https://peru21.pe/economia/el-239-de-viviendas-vendidas-solo-tienen-un-dormitorio/

[21] S. Camino-Mogro and K. Arias, “Assessing the impact of electricity subsides onelectricity consumption: The case of selected LatinAmerican countries,” Latin American Economic Review, vol. 33, pp. 1-46, 2024. https://doi.org/10.60758/laer.v33i.375

[22] J. Aguilera, L. Hontoria and F. J. Muñoz, “Dimensionado de sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos,” Grupo Idea, 2011. https://manuelberaun.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/dimensionado-de-sfv-autonomos.pdf

[23] A. Z. Henry and A. F. M. Nor, “Sizing Standalone PV Systems: A Review of Optimization Techniques and Methodologies,” International Journal of Computer Engineering in Research Trends. IJCERT, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 54-59, 12 December 2023. https://doi.org/10.22362/ijcert/2023/v10/i12/v10i127

[24] F. Bouti, K. Touafek, H. Haloui and A. Khelifa, “New graphical interface for Sizing PV systems,” Journal of Renewable Energies, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 19-29, September 2023. https://doi.org/10.54966/jreen.v1i1.1095

[25] E. Pujada Gamarra, “Curso de dimensionamiento de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos,” 09-30 May 2024. [Online].

[26] N. M. Kumar, M. Subathra and J. E. Moses, “On-Grid Solar Photovoltaic System: Components, Design Considerations, and Case Study,” in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Electrical Energy Systems, ICEES 2018, Chennai, India, 2018.

[27] IEA SHC Task 41: Solar energy & Architecture, “Solar Energy Systems in Architecture. integration criteria and guidelines,” in Report T.41.A.2, International Energy Agency ‐ Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2013, pp. 1-213. https://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/T41DA2-Solar-Energy-Systems-in-Architecture-28March2013.pdf

[28] R. H. Valdivia-Sisniegas, “Consumos de Electricidad y Agua en viviendas de estudiantes en Lima 2011-2014,” Sin publicar, Lima, 2015.

[29] Periferia y World Wild Fundation, “Ciudades del Perú. Primer Reporte Nacional de Indicadores Urbanos 2018. Con un enfoque de sostenibilidad y resiliencia.,” Periferia y World Wild Fundation, Lima, 2018. https://www.wwf.org.pe/?341474/Primer-Reporte-Nacional-de-Indicadores-Urbanos-2018

[30] www.gob.pe, “Portal del Estado Peruano,” 22 February 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.gob.pe/institucion/osinergmin/colecciones/1591-encuesta- residencial-de-consumo-y-usos-de-energia.

[31] Osinergmin, “Informe de Resultados Consumo y Usos de la Electricidad Encuesta Residencial de Consumo y Usos de Energía – ERCUE 2018,” Gerencia de Políticas y Análisis Económico - GPAE, 2018. https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/1414562/ERCUE%20Electricidad%202018.pdf

[32] Osinergmin, “Informe de Resultados - . Consumo y Usos de la Electricidad. Encuesta Residencial de Consumo y Usos de Energía - ERCUE 2019-2020,” GPAE, 2021. https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/2691020/ERCUE%20Electricidad%202019-2020.pdf

[33] A. Ríos Villacorta, J. Guamán, D. Humpire Mojonero and J. Luyo Kuong, “Technical and economic analysis of residential photovoltaic distributed generation: Net billing and self-consumption in Peru,” International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 438 - 447, March 2020. https://doi.org/10.20508/ijrer.v10i1.10468.g7899

[34] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 27510 - Ley que crea el Fondo de Compensación Social Eléctrica,” El Peruano, p. 209263, 28 August 2001. Available: https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/Leyes/27510.pdf

[35] D. W. García, “Trading solar panels for grid power: An ethnography of rural energy service in Peru,” Journal of Rural Studies, vol. 78, p. 254–261, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.06.017

[36] Congreso de la República del Perú, “Law 31429 - Ley que modifica la ley 27510,” El Peruano, pp. 4-5, 26 February 2022. Available: https://img.lpderecho.pe/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Ley-31429-LPDerecho.pdf

[37] O. M. Asalde Vargas and W. D. P. Chávez Ignacio, “Comparación de presupuestos entre edificaciones tradicionales y edificaciones sostenibles con certificación EDGE,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2020.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/3897

[38] L. S. Lovera Cabrera and O. O. Quispe Catari, “Propuesta de plan de mejora en la gestión de agua y energía para la mitigación de Impactos Ambientales en edificios multifamiliares existentes de cinco pisos basado en recomendaciones EDGE. Caso: Block 03 – Condominio Héroes de San Juan y Miraflores,” Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10757/656884

[39] A. M. Apari Lopez and J. R. Capcha Alvites, “Diseño de una edificación multifamiliar con parámetros EDGE para mitigar el impacto ambiental,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2023. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/7180

[40] A. P. Cordova Vasquez and N. K. Huarcaya Torres, “Diseño de un edificio multifamiliar con parámetros de certificación EDGE, para alcanzar su sostenibilidad, en el distrito de San Borja,” Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2022. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14138/6001

[41] Tinsa Perú, “Residential Market Overview – Perú | Lima Metropolitana y Callao | Primer trimestre 2025,” [Online]. Available: https://www.tinsa.com.pe/residential-market-overview-q1-2025/

[42] Diario Gestión, “Uno de cada 2 proyectos inmobiliarios no superan los 10 pisos de altura: ¿en donde se construye?,” 26 12 2024. [Online]. Available: https://gestion.pe/economia/empresas/1-de-cada-2-proyectos-inmobiliarios-no-superan-los-10-pisos-de-altura-en-donde-se-construye-construccion-empresas-tinsa-lima-top-lima-moderna-miraflores-surco-noticia/

[43] J. S. Stein, C. W. Hansen and M. J. Reno, “Global Horizontal Irradiance Clear Sky Models: Implementation and Analysis,” Sandia National Laboratories, 2012. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1039404

[44] C. S. Psomopoulos, G. C. Ioannidis, S. D. Kaminaris, K. D. Mardikis and N. G. Katsikas, “A Comparative Evaluation of Photovoltaic Electricity Production Assessment Software (PVGIS, PVWatts and RETScreen),” Environ. Process., vol. 2, pp. 175-189, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-015-0092-4

[45] B. E. Psiloglou, H. D. Kambezidis, D. G. Kaskaoutis, D. Karagiannis and J. M. Polo, “Comparison between MRM simulations, CAMS and PVGIS databases with measured solar radiation components at the Methoni station, Greece,” Renewable Energy, vol. 146, pp. 1372-1391, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.064

[46] A. Sáez Pastor, PVGIS para el calculo de instalaciones fotovoltaicas, Comisión Europea, 2008. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40710-015-0092-4

[47] Solargis, “Global Solar Atlas,” 13 junio 2024. [Online]. Available: https://globalsolaratlas.info/map

[48] Climate Data Download Center, “Climate Data Download Center,” 08 February 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.equaonline.com/ice4user/new_index.html

[49] “Repository of Building Simulation Climate Data,” 21 June 2024. [Online]. Available: https://climate.onebuilding.org/

[50] PVsyst, “How to determine the IAM profile?” 30 January 2017. [Online]. Available: https://forum.pvsyst.com/topic/1190-how-to-determine-the-iam- profile/

[51] Ieco, “¿Sabes qué son las pérdidas IAM en una instalación fotovoltaica?” 14 may 2023 (On line) Available https://learn.ieco.io/es/blog/losses-iam

[52] R. H. Valdivia-Sisniegas, “Aplanando la curva del consumo eléctrico con fotovoltaicos y hábitos ahorradores en un departamento en Lima (2017-2020),” Arquiteck, vol. 20, pp. 42 - 55., 2021. https://doi.org/10.47796/ra.2021i20.551

[53] V. Benda y L. Cerná, «PV cells and modules – State of the art, limits and trends,» Heliyon, vol. 6, p. e05666, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05666

[54] A. A. A. Al-Khazzar, “The Required Land Area for Installing a Photovoltaic Power Plant,” Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 11-17, 2016. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115360982

[55] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Solar Industry Update. Spring 2024,” NREL, 2024. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/90042.pdf

[56] Fototrace, “Performance Ratio, un cálculo complicado,” 17 July 2024. [Online]. Available: https://fototrace.com/blog/performance-ratio-un-calculo-complicado

[57] D. Sánchez-Talledo, C. Paragua-Macuri, M. Paragua-Morales and M. Paragua-Macuri, “Análisis cualitativo y dimensionamiento del impacto ambiental del uso de la Energía Fotovoltaica: 3 Casos de estudio en el Perú,” Tecnia, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 34-42, 2023. https://doi.org/10.21754/tecnia.v33i1.1548

[58] E. J. Zarate Pérez, M. Palumbo Fernandez and A. L. Torres Seroa Da Motta, “Sistema de iluminação residencial fotovolática autónomo: o caso de Peru,” in 6º CONGRESO DE PATOLOGÍA Y REHABILITACIÓN DE EDIFICIOS – PATORREB 2018, Ciudad Universitaria-Rio de Janeiro-Brasil, 2018. https://www.nppg.org.br/patorreb/files/artigos/80621.pdf

[59] M. L. Sánchez Montehermoso, “Estimación de la energía fotovoltaica potencial a partir de la radiación solar del distrito lagunas - Chiclayo,” Repositorio de la Universidad Privada del Norte UPN, 2023. https://hdl.handle.net/11537/35077

[60] J. M. Fernández Salgado, Tecnología de las energías renovables, Madrid: Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, 2009.

[61] J. Fernández, Compendio de energía solar: Fotovoltaica, térmica y termoeléctrica., Madrid: Mundi-Prensa, 2010.

[62] J. E. Carrasco Delgado and M. G. Ramirez Vilchez, “Diseño de un prototipo limpiador automatizado para paneles solares de dimensiones 160 x 90 x 4 cm,” Repositorio Universidad Señor de Sipán, 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12802/7786

[63] M. A. Abella, «Dimensionado de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos,» Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas - CIEMAT, Madrid, 2007. https://www.eoi.es/es/savia/publicaciones/77702/dimensionado-de-sistemas-fotovoltaicos-anexo-i-otros-metodos-de-dimensionado-de-sistemas-fv-autonomos

[64] J. A. Francia Camacho, “Impacto de los sistemas fotovoltaicos en la evaluación económica para la electrificación del AAHH. Virgen de la Candelaria, Calango.,” Repositorio de la Universidad Federico Villareal, 2024. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.13084/8383

[65] J. H. Méndez Marquina, “Diseño de un sistema fotovoltaico estándar para alimentación con energía eléctrica a viviendas en el Distrito de Sanagoran – Sánchez Carrión -2017,” Respositorio de la Unviersidad César Vallejo, 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12692/23056

[66] A. Juaidi, H. H. Muhammad, R. Abdallah, R. Abdalhaq, A. Albatayneh and F. Kawa, “Experimental validation of dust impact on-grid connected PV system performance in Palestine: An energy nexus perspective,” Energy Nexus, vol. 6, p. 100082, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100082

[67] H. Y. P. Thi, N. N. Tien and X.-T. Nguyen, “Loss analysis of grid-tied rooftop PV systems for self-consumption: A case study,” in 4th Student Forum on Frontiers in SustainabilityAt, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2023. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hai-Yen-Pham-Thi/publication/379274822_Loss_analysis_of_grid-tied_rooftop_PV_systems_for_self-consumption_A_case_study/links/6602d05a8be8c8003bb876fb/Loss-analysis-of-grid-tied-rooftop-PV-systems-for-self-consumption-A-case-study.pdf

[68] M. Salman, “Solar Rooftop PV Energy Generation for a Residential Building in India,” in International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering Research and Development - ICRAMERD 2023, India, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1080-5_49

[69] Municipalidad de Miraflores, “Ordinance N° 581/MM,” El Peruano, p. Separata especial, 17 December 2021. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/munimiraflores-lima/normas-legales/2681720-581-2021-mm

[70] Municipalidad de Miraflores, “Ordinance Nº 618/MM,” El Peruano, pp. 72-85, 20 September 2023.Available: https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2218698-1

[71] Fondo MiVivienda, “Procedimiento de Verificación de Proyectos del Programa MiVivienda Sostenible,” Departamento de Desarrollo Organizativo, 2025. Available: https://www.mivivienda.com.pe/PORTALCMS/archivos/documentos/8585831813173775167.PDF

[72] R. Espinoza, E. Muñoz-Cerón, J. Aguilera and J. de la Casa, “Feasibility evaluation of residential photovoltaic self-consumption projects in Peru,” Renewable Energy, vol. 136, pp. 414-427, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.01.003

[73] El Oriente, “www.eloriente.com,” 09 10 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.eloriente.com/articulo/que-paises-de-america-latina-tienen-el-precio-de-la-luz-mas-cara/47240